How Many Ways Can We Shuffle the Universe?
How Many Ways Can We Shuffle the Universe? A standard deck of cards contains 52 cards. The number of possible shuffles is $$ 52! $$ that is, $$ 52 \cdot 51 \cdot 50 \cdot \ldots \cdot 3 \cdot 2 \cdot 1. $$ This is already an enormous number: $$ 52! \approx 8.07 \times 10^{67}. $$ It is so large that any thoroughly shuffled deck of cards has, in all likelihood, never appeared in precisely that order before in the history of the universe. This is a familiar example of how quickly combinatorics produces large numbers. A deck of cards is a small finite system. It has only 52 distinguishable objects. Yet the number of possible arrangements is already far beyond ordinary intuition. But the deck of cards raises a natural question. If a deck can be shuffled in $52!$ ways, how many ways can the universe be “shuffled”? Of course, this question is not precise as it stands. The universe is not literally a deck of cards. Its degrees of freedom are not ordinary objects placed i...